1.A.10 The Glutamate-gated Ion Channel (GIC) Family of Neurotransmitter Receptors

Members of the GIC family are homo or heterotetrameric complexes in which each of the 4 subunits is of 800-1000 amino acyl residues in length (Mayer, 2006). These subunits may span the membrane three times as putative transmembrane (TM) α-helices with the N-termini (the glutamate-binding domains) localized extracellularly and the C-termini localized cytoplasmically (Gouaux, 2004). The structure is: The extracellular amino terminal domain, S1, and the loop domain between TMSs 2 and 3, bind the neurotransmitter (Gouaux, 2004). Between TMSs 1 and 2 is a P-loop which participates in channel formation and ion selectivity.

The subunits of GIC family channel proteins fall into six subfamilies: α, β, γ, δ, ε and ζ. Two regions in the N-terminal domain of glutamate receptor 3 form the subunit oligomerization interface that controls subtype-specific receptor assembly (Ayalon et al., 2005). The canonical conformational states occupied by most ligand-gated ion channels, and many cell-surface receptors, are the resting, activated, and desensitized states. The AMPA-sensitive GluR2 receptor undergoes conformational rearrangements of the agonist binding cores that occur upon desensitization. Desensitization involves the rupture of an extensive interface between domain 1 of 2-fold related glutamate-binding core subunits, compensating for the ca. 21 degrees of domain closure induced by glutamate binding. The rupture of the domain 1 interface allows the ion channel to close and thereby provides a simple explanation to the long-standing question of how agonist binding is decoupled from ion channel gating upon receptor desensitization (Armstrong et al., 2006).

The GIC channels are divided into three types: (1) α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA)-, (2) kainate- and (3) N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-selective glutamate receptors. Subunits of the AMPA and kainate classes exhibit 35-40% identity with each other while subunits of the NMDA receptors exhibit 22-24% identity with the former subunits. They possess large N-terminal, extracellular glutamate-binding domains that are homologous to the periplasmic glutamine and glutamate receptors (TC #3.A.1.3.2 and TC #3.A.1.3.4, respectively) of ABC-type uptake permeases (TC #3.A.1) of Gram-negative bacteria. All functionally characterized members of the GIC family are from animals. The different channel (receptor) types exhibit distinct ion selectivities and conductance properties. The NMDA-selective large conductance channels are highly permeable to monovalent cations and Ca²⁺. The AMPA- and kainate-selective ion channels are permeable primarily to monovalent cations with only low permeability to Ca²⁺.

A prokaryotic K⁺-selective glutamate receptor that binds glutamate and forms K⁺-selective ion channels has been characterized (Chen et al., 1999). It shows sequence similarity to both glutamate receptors of eukaryotes and to K⁺ channels of the VIC family (TC #1.A.1). It exhibits 397 amino acyl residues, a signal peptide, and three TMSs flanked by two regions of about 140 residues. It showed highest sequence similarity to the rat δ1 GluR followed by a putative GluR from Arabidopsis thaliana. As a result of these observations, it has been proposed that glutamate receptors of eukaryotes arose from a primordial prokaryotic protein (Chen et al., 1999).

AMPA receptors are homo or heterooligomers of four subunits, GluRA-D (also called GluR1-4). The GluRB subunit of the AMPA receptor, responsible for fast excitatory signaling in the brain and ion selectivity, has been purified in milligram quantities as a homotetramer. It exhibits the expected pharmacological properties. Based on molecular mass and electron microscopic studies, the channel appears to be a dimer of dimers (Safferling et al., 2001). The molecular dimensions are about 11 x 14 x 17 nm, and solvent accessible regions that may form the channel can be seen.

Ligand (neurotransmitter) binding opens the transmembrane pore, but after activation, desensitization results, in which the ligand remains bound, but the ion channel is closed. Using the GluR2 AMPA-sensitive glutamate receptor, Sun et al. (2002) showed (1) that the ligand-binding cores form the dimer interfaces, (2) that stabilization of the intradimer interface reduces desensitization, (3) that destabilization of the intradimer interface enhances desensitization, and (4) receptor activation involves conformational changes within each subunit that result in an increase in the separation of portions of the receptor that are linked to the channel. These results indicate how ligand binding is coupled to channel activation (gating), suggest modes of dimer-dimer interaction in the formation of the tetramer, and show that desensitization results from rearrangement of the dimer interface which disengages the agonist-induced conformational change in the ligand-binding core from the ion channel gate (Sun et al., 2002).

NMDA receptors are always heterotetrameric cation channels that transport Ca²⁺ with subunits NR1, NR2 and NR3 in an (NR1)₂ (NR2)₂ or (NR1)₂ (NR2)(NR3) arrangement (Furukawa et al., 2005). Glycine binds to NR1, and glutamate binds to NR2 and/or NR3, and simultaneous binding of both agonists as well as relief of Mg²⁺ blockage by membrane depolarization is required for channel opening.

Recently, crystal structures of the ligand binding core of NR2A with glutamate and of the NR1-NR2A heterodimer with glycine and glutamate bound. The details of subunit:subunit interaction and of channel opening were reported (Furukawa et al., 2005). As a result, many features including the mechanism of allosteric modulation of channel activity (Jin et al., 2005) and the mechanism of dual agonist action (Olson and Gouaux, 2005) were revealed.

Glutamate receptor ligand binding domain dimer assembly is modulated allosterically by ions (Chaudhry et al., 2009). The activities of many ligand-gated ion channels and cell surface receptors are modulated by small molecules and ions. For kainate, but not AMPA subtype glutamate receptors, the binding of Na⁺ and Cl^- ions to discrete, electrostatically coupled sites in the extracellular ligand binding domain (LBD), regulates dimer assembly. Dimer assembly then regulates the rate of entry into the desensitized state, which occurs when the dimer interface ruptures and the channel closes. Studies on glutamate receptors have defined the LBD dimer assembly as a key functional unit that controls activation and desensitization. Sodium and chloride ions modulate kainate receptor dimer affinity as much as 50-fold, and removal of either Cl^- or Na⁺ disrupts the dimer (Chaudhry et al., 2009).

The generalized transport reaction catalyzed by GIC family channels is:

Me⁺ (or Me²⁺) (out) Me⁺ (or Me²⁺) (in).