1.C.38 The Pore-forming Equinatoxin (Equinatoxin) Family
Sea anemones such as Actinia equina, Heteractis magnifica, and Stichodactyla helianthus produce a variety of sequence related toxins (called actinoporins) including Equinatoxins 1A,-1D, II, III, IV, V, etc. They have been given alternative designations such as Tenebrosin C (for Equinatoxin II), cytolysin, and hemolytic toxin. These cardiac stimulatory hemolysins penetrate membranes forming ion permeable, cation-selective pores, also permeable to small neutral solutes. They cause a variety of phenotypes in mammals including platelet aggregation, cytotoxicity of a variety of animal cells, lysis of some cells, and vasospasm of coronary vessels. They are of 175-179 aas in length and form tetrameric pore-forming structures in membranes. The 3-dimensional structure of the soluble form of equinatoxin II has been solved (Anastasiadis et al., 2001). The radius of the Sticholysin pore has been shown to be about 1.2 nm (diameter, ~2 nm). Pore size is independent of toxin concentration and is the same in biological and artificial membranes (Tejuca et al., 2001). Pore formation requires a flexible N-terminal region and a stable β-sandwich (Kristan et al., 2004).
Equinatoxin II inserts into the membrane via a two-step membrane-binding process involving an exposed cluster of aromatic residues (step 1) and a flexible N-terminal amphipathic α-helix (step 2) (Hong et al., 2002). The first step is similar to that of the evolutionarily distant cholesterol-dependent cytolysins. Interaction is dependent on sphingomyelin, and lipid phase coexistence favors membrane insertion (Barlic et al., 2004; Biserka et al., 2008; Schoen et al., 2008).
Equinatoxin II (EqtII) from Actinia equina and Sticholysin II (StnII) from Stichodactyla helianthus are the actinoporins that have been studied in greatest detail. Both proteins display a beta-sandwich fold composed of 10 β-strands flanked on each side by two short alpha-helices. Two-dimensional crystallization on lipid monolayers has allowed the determination of low-resolution models of tetrameric structures distinct from the pore. Wild-type EqtII and StnII, as well as a nice collection of natural and artificially made variants of both proteins, have been produced in Escherichia coli and purified. Four regions of the actinoporin structure seem to play an important role. The phosphatidyl choline or sphingomyelin-binding site and a cluster of exposed aromatic residues, together with a basic region, may be involved in the initial interaction with the membrane, whereas the amphipathic N-terminal region is essential for oligomerization and pore formation (Alegre-Cebollaba et al., 2007). Pore formation proceeds in at least four steps: Monomer binding to the membrane interface, assembly of four monomers, and at least two distinct conformational changes driving to the final formation of the functional pore. Sticholysin I is almost identical to sticholysin II. Conformational flexibility at the N-terminus of the protein does not provide higher affinity for the membrane, although it is necessary for correct pore formation (Alegre-Cebollada et al., 2008). An AF domain superfamily (abbreviated from actinoporin-like proteins and fungal fruit-body lectins) has been defined. It contains members from at least three animal and two plant phyla. On the basis of functional properties of some members, Crnigoj Kristan et al., 2009 hypothesised that AF domains mediate peripheral membrane interactions.
The generalized transport reaction catalyzed by members of the equinatoxin family is:
Small molecule (in) 
small molecule (out)
